English Writing Tips

  • 22 Comparison  

    几种比较结构

    一、As much A as B

    as much A as B/A as much as B表示“既是A,也是B主要用在主系表结构中,A/B作为表语,可以是名词/形容词/不定式等成分。

    在该句型中,第二个as(从属连词)后面相当于省略了主语+be

    1.1 For affluent city-dwellers, personal care is a matter of vanity and identity as much as an effort to prolong life.对于富裕的城市居民来说,个人护理既是为了延长寿命,同样也事关虚荣心和身份认同。【第二个as后面相当于省略了it is】

    1.2 The aim was as much political as it was technological.这个目标即涉及政治方面,又涉及科技方面。【it was也可以省略】

    上面的两句中,比较对象为主句和从句(第二个as后面)的表语。as much...as...也可以是用于比较主句和从句的主语,表示两个事物符合同一特指

    1.3 Tokyo is as much a global city as San Francisco.东京和三藩市同样都是全球化城市

    1.4 Volatile wheat prices are as much a cause for alarm as are high prices.与高价格一样,波动的小麦价格同样应该引起人们的警觉。【as are high prices是21节中讲到的倒装】


    二、Not so much A as B

    这种句型相当于上一种句型的否定形式,变成否定形式时,第一个as改为so,即not so much A as B。含义:与其说是A,不如说是B。逻辑:否定A,肯定B

    与上面一种句型类似,so much既可以放在A前面,也可以放在A后面。即:not so much A as Bnot A so much as B都可以。

    2.1 For those in the business of skiing, snow is not a natural phenomenon so much as a commodity.对于滑雪行业的人来说,雪更适合被称为一种商品,而不是自然现象

    2.2 Nanotechnology is not so much a new science as an approach to solving engineering problems.与其说纳米技术是一门新科学,不如说它是一种解决工程问题的方法

    2.3 Today, the role of the firm is not so much to direct work as it is to focus on passion and purpose.如今,这家公司的职能与其说是指导工作,不如说是专注于激情和目标。【it is可以省略】


    三、more of a A than a B

    Sth is more of a A than a B表示"与其说...是B,不如说...是A"否定的是than后面的部分,即否定B

    3.1 Running an efficient IT organization is much more of a science than an art.运营一个高效的IT组织与其说是一门艺术,远不如说它是一门科学

    3.2 As a teenager he was more of a tinkerer than a talker, winning national competitions for building and racing model planes.作为一名青少年,他更像是一个喜欢动手的人而不是一个健谈的人,他赢得了制造和驾驶模型飞机的全国比赛


    句子仿写

    1 Today, the role of the firm is not so much to direct work as it is to focus on passion and purpose.

    2  For affluent city-dwellers, personal care is a matter of vanity and identity as much as an effort to prolong life

    话题Is technology a boon or a bane?(科技是福还是祸?)



    参考词汇

    ①facilitate people's life


    ②boost economic development

  • 21 analogy  

    类比

    在写作中,经常需要将讨论的事物与其他事物进行类比,通常是读者已知的或者更加熟悉的事物,使得论述更具说服力。

    一、as方式状语从句

    将讨论的事物与另一件事类比时,可以使用as方式状语从句,一般放在主句之后。当前后句谓语部分相同时,as从句中则使用助动词be/do/情态动词进行替代。as前面有时会加上just。as...从句中是次要信息,而主句中是讨论的话题。

    1.1 Some online learning programs are gradually incorporating elements of the brick-and-mortar model, just as online retailers use relatively small physical outlets to stimulate sales on their websites and increase customer loyalty.一些在线学习课程项目正逐渐融入实体模式的元素,就像在线零售商使用相对较小的实体门店来刺激网站销售和增加用户忠实度一样。(文章主题:online learning)

    1.2 Driverless vehicles will change the worldjust as cars did before them.无人驾驶汽车将改变世界,正如之前汽车改变世界一样。【did=change(d) the world

    举例

    这种句型也可以对动作进行举例,恰好弥补了such as(通常只对名词成分举例)的不足。

    1.3 Working in the gig economyas so many young people do, may actually be a better fit for those heading for retirement.在零工经济中工作,正如很多年轻人所做的一样,实际上可能更适合那些即将退休的人。【do=work in the gig economy


    1.4 Some technologies which currently seem beneficial will turn out to incur unforeseen costs and harm, just as cheap meat has.一些目前看似有益的技术将产生预料不到的成本和危害,比如廉价肉类。has=has turned...harm

    as方式状从经常会进行倒装:当as从句的谓语部分和主句相同,就可以进行倒装,as+be/do/情态动词+主语。当从句主语很长时(比如包含非限定从或同位语),这种倒装则更加必要。

    1.5 Lack of regular exercise is likely to cause health problems, as are unhealthy eating habits.缺乏运动可能会造成健康问题,正如不健康的饮食习惯可能造成健康问题一样

    可以在as从句的主语后面加个非限定从进行补充说明。如:

    1.6 Artificial intelligence may render some traditional jobs obsolete and many workers unemployed, as did machines, which have largely replaced labourers in the workplace.人工智能可能会废弃一些传统工作,并使很多工作者失业,正如机器一样—机器在工作场所很大程度上替代了体力劳动者



    二、Just as..., so...

    需要用一件类似的事引入要给出的事实/观点,则可以使用一种特殊的句型:Just as..., so...“正如...,...也...”。同样,just as引导的从句,后面是次要信息;而so后面是主句,是重要信息。从句as...和主句so...中的谓语通常包含相似的信息。


    这种结构与上面一种的主要区别在于:just as...放在主句后时,是对主句作补充说明;而just as...放主句前时,主要是起到一个引入的作用。

    2.1 Just as the pessimism of the 2010s was overdonethe decade saw many advances, such as in cancer treatmentso predictions of technological Utopia are overblown.正如2010年代的悲观情绪被夸大一样(这十年见证了许多进步,比如在癌症治疗方面),人们对科技乌托邦的预测也过于夸张了。【overblown与overdone是同义词】

    2.2 Just as employees need a break from the workplace, so companies sometimes need a break from their employees.正如员工需要离开工作场所休息一样,公司有时也需要离开员工一段时间

    employees need a break from the workplace是大众熟知的信息。而主句中的companies sometimes need a break from their employees则是接下来要讨论的内容。


    2.3 Just as cars had unexpected side-effects, so autonomous vehicles are raising new concerns about safety, liability and inequality.正如汽车曾经有意想不到的副作用一样,自动驾驶汽车也引发了人们对安全、责任和不平等的新担忧


    如果两句话重要性同等,比如两个并列的例子,则使用分号或句号连接,同时可以加上similarly/likewise:

    Cars had unexpected side-effects; likewise/similarly, autonomous vehicles are raising new concerns about safety, liability and inequality.


    句子仿写

    1 Working in the gig economyas so many young people do, may actually be a better fit for those heading for retirement.

    2 Lack of regular exercise is likely to cause health problems, as are unhealthy eating habits.

    话题The potential risks of social media


    参考观点

    ①social isolation

    ②failing eyesight

  • 20 infinitive  

    不定式的使用

    一、不定式作主语

    不定式作主语和that主语从句的用法非常相似,区别在于,不定式重在“动作”。这种句型的作用是对某件具体的事进行评价、描述。It...to do sth.中间的成分可以是表语谓语,但是一般都比较短,基本类似于that主语从句。


    如果要明确的表明不定式的逻辑主语,则在不定式前加上for sb/sth当不定式的逻辑主语是people/us逻辑主语在语境中非常清楚时,可以不加for sb/sth。

    1.1 It is not hard to find evidence of the success of the "sharing economy".找到“共享经济”成功的例子并不难。

    1.2 It is a laborious task to sort through thousands of written applications.整理几千份书面申请是个非常费力的活

    1.3 It helps for all the kids to know that the school is coming out against taunting.让所有孩子都知道学校在反对嘲笑这种行为,是有帮助的。【这个句型可以用来引导解决措施

    =For all the kids to know that the school is coming out against taunting helps.

    这里补充一种不定式作主语的变体:

    如果It is adj to do sth.中的不定式宾语sth是讨论的主题,则可以在这个结构上进行变形:Sth is adj to do。其中,to do作主语的补语,to do的宾语就是句子主语。

    1.4 Good judgment is remarkably difficult to define precisely.良好的判断力很难被明确定义

    →It is remarkably difficult to define good judgment precisely.

    1.5 It will mainly benefit university graduates, whose jobs are easier to do from home.受益对象主要是大学毕业生,因为他们的工作更容易在家里完成

    →It will mainly benefit university graduates, since it is easier to do their jobs from home/since their jobs can be done more easily.

    1.6 These two wishes are impossible to reconcile in the real world.这两个愿景在现实中不可能同时兼顾。【these two wishes承接上文,放在句首更好

    →It is impossible to reconcile these two wishes in the real world.


    二、不定式作表语

    动作作表语时,是对主语的名词成分进行解释说明

    当表语表示具体的/有待实现的/一次性的动作时,一般用不定式。在写作中,不定式作表语最常见的情况就是引出解决方法/建议/影响

    2.1 The most promising way to ensure greater equity may be to make early-years education and care far more widely available and more affordable.因此,要确保更大程度的公平,最有希望的办法可能是大幅增加早期教育和看护的供应,并让价格变得更容易负担。(make sth adj)解决方法

    2.2 Another option is for the state to build more housing itself.另一个方法就是州政府自己建造更多的的住房建议

    不定式作表语表示建议/措施是最常用的。除此之外,还可以掌握一种不定式表示某一具体事件的影响/结果的用法。此时不定式的逻辑主语在语境中非常清晰:

    2.3 A second effect of the pandemic has been to help speed up the spread of China's club culture.疫情的第二个影响是,疫情已经加速了中国俱乐部文化的传播。【影响】【is→has been完成时】

    =A second effect of the pandemic is that it has helped speeded up the spread of China's club culture.

    此时,使用不定式更加简洁,避免了重复(the pandemic/it)。

    2.4 The result is to accelerate changes to globalisation that were already under way.结果就是加速之前已经在进行中的全球化的变化。结果

    to accelerate...的逻辑主语是上文提及的the pandemic。


    三、不定式作宾语


    不定式作宾语时,主要用作动词+it+宾补+to do sth。其中,it代指to do sth,这样处理放目的是:将较长的信息置于句尾,使句子更加平衡写作中常用的主要有:

    make it+adj+(for sb)+to do使做某事怎样

    3.1 To make all this training worthwhile, governments need to slash the licensing requirements and other barriers that make it hard for newcomers to enter occupations.要让所有这些培训有价值,政府需要大力降低执业资格要求以及其他使得新人很难入行的门槛。【make的实际宾语为不定式for newcomers to enter occupations】

    find it+adj+to do觉得做某事怎样

    3.2 Young people find it increasingly difficult to hunt a decent job.年轻人觉得找一份好工作越来越难

    consider/deem it+adj+to do认为做某事怎样 

    3.3 Many people consider it unnecessary to enact trash-sorting policies.很多人认为没有必要实施垃圾分类政策


    句子仿写

    要求:搭配使用动词+it+宾补+to do sth结构:

    1 It helps for all the kids to know that the school is coming out against taunting.

    2 The most promising way to ensure greater equity may be to make early-years education and care far more widely available and more affordable.

    话题How to reduce children's internet addiction?


    参考词汇

    ①outdoor activities户外活动

    ②parental company父母的陪伴

  • 19 Gerund (verb that ends in ...ing is used as a noun)  

    名词成分的动态化

    一、名词成分的动态化

    英文书面语中经常使用静态的名词成分来表示动态的概念(比如动作),多用来表示已经发生的或有待发生的具体动作。其中一种较为常见的结构就是the n of...

    1.1 Another result of the greying population is the creation of ever more jobs.人口老龄化的另一个结果就是创造越来越多的工作。【create→creation】

    =Another result of the greying population is that it creates ever more jobs.

    1.2 Their malign side-effects, such as the creation of powerful monopolies and the pollution of the public square, became very apparent.其有害的副作用,比如创造了强大的垄断和污染了公共区域,变得非常明显。【created→creation  |  polluted→pollution】

    create和pollute是已经发生的动作,即一次性动作,因此放在such as后面,需要变成名词成分。如果是反复发生的一般性动作(一般规律),则通常使用动名词:such as creating powerful monopolies and polluting the public square。

    1.3 Failure to control the crisis probably means lower future incomes for millions of pupils.如果没有控制住此次危机,可能就会导致几百万的学生将来收入变低【fail→failure】

    使用名词成分表示动作的一个好处就是,避免不必要的动作主语。在这句话中,fail这个动作的主语并不重要,因此使用名词成分相比于If the government fails to...来说效果更好,更强调动作本身。

    有些动词没有对应的名词形式,如果要在句中作名词成分,则写成the v-ing of的形式,相当于the n of。

    1.4 One impact is the slowing and possible reversal of globalisation as trade tensions rise.其中一个影响就是,随着贸易关系的加剧,全球化趋势减慢,并有可能倒退

    =One impact is that globalisation will slow and possibly reverse as trade tensions rise.

    1.5 The emptying of tourist trails and resorts is causing massive upheaval.旅游小道和度假胜地的变空正在引起巨大的变动

    Tourist trails and resorts is emptying.→the emptying of tourist trails and resorts


    需要注意的是,the v-ing of N与the n of N相同,N既可以是动作的主语,也可以是动作的宾语当动词作及物动词时,N是该动作的宾语;当动词作不及物动词时,N是该动作的主语。如:

    Socialists worried about the displacement of skilled artisans, the despoiling of the countryside and the suffering of factory hands.社会主义者们担心熟练工匠被迫离开、农村被掠夺以及工厂工人痛苦

    the displacement of skilled artisansdisplace skilled artisans动作宾语

    the despoiling of the countrysidedespoil the countryside动作宾语

    the suffering of factory handsfactory hands suffer 【动作主语


    二、名词成分表示变化

    当某个句子成分表示一种变化/趋势时,可以使用名词成分来表示。此时的名词成分通常会包含比较级表示变化的词(如reduction/change/improvement)。

    2.1 In addition to making children more sedentary, lockdowns have also led to a reduction in their sleeping hours.除了使儿童更加宅在家,隔离还导致了他们睡眠时间的减少

    lead to+表变化的名词成分是个常见的组合搭配。

    2.2 Ensuring that products are designed for everyone would lead to happier and safer customers.如果能保证产品是为每个人设计的,那么将使消费者更加满意和安全

    =Ensuring that products are designed for everyone would make customers happier and safer.

    2.3 One result may be shorter supply chains, with more products made close to home.其中一个结果可能就是供应链变短,也就是更多的产品离家更近。【with+名词短语+分词结构对谓语may be shorter supply chains作补充说明。】

    →【名词从句】One result is that supply chains may become shorter,...


    表示措施

    可以使用可数名词的单数来表示尚未实施的单个动作。由于是未发生,因此属于不定指,前面冠词用a/an,而不是the。

    2.4 The curriculum needs to teach children how to study and think. A focus on "metacognition" will make them better at picking up skills later in life.学校课程需要教孩子们如何学习和思考。将关注点放在"元认知"上会使孩子们在今后可以更好地学会技能。

    =Focusing on "metacognition" will make them better at picking up skills later in life.

    2.5 A switch to renewable power would cut dependence on oil and natural gas as the national production of both dwindles.如果向可再生能源转变的话,可能会降低对石油和天然气的依赖,因为这两者的国内生产会逐渐降低

    =Switching to renewable power would cut dependence on oil and natural gas...

    A switch to renewable power同样表示将来可能会发生的动作,属于一次性动作。

    2.6 This report will argue that making longer lives financially more viable requires a fundamental rethink of life trajectories and a new look at the assumptions around ageing.该报告将主张认为,让更长的寿命在经济上更可行,需要从根本上重新思考人生轨迹,并重新审视关于老龄化的假设

    =...requires us to rethink life trajectories in a fundamental way and take a new look at the assumptions around ageing.


    句子仿写

    1 Another result of the ageing population is the creation of ever more jobs.

    2 One result may be shorter supply chains, with more products made close to home.【搭配with结构作补充】

    话题:The impact of the sharing economy(共享经济).



    参考观点:

    ①utilize resources more efficiently

    ②reduce living expenses

  • 18 Compound Gerund Form  

    复合动名词的使用

    一、基本构造

    当某个抽象动作有其具体的逻辑主语时,则需要在动名词前加上其逻辑主语。这一结构叫做动名词复合结构。即sb/sth doingsb/sth's doing

    在写作中,复合动名词结构经常作主语作宾语(动词宾语/介词宾语)。作为逻辑主语的名词可以写成所有格形式,也可以写成原形。人称代词或人名一般要写成所有格形式(如he→his/JohnJohn's)其他普通名词可以不加所有格

    1.1 For these consumers, the messages could result in their being charged a per-text fee by their cellphone company.【作介词宾语

    charged是被动,作宾语,前面需要加上being,从而变成动名词。

    1.2 It is not hard to imagine future dating services matching people by preferred traits.不难想象,未来的约会服务会根据优选特征来匹配对象。【作动词宾语

    dating services of the future是动名词matching结构的逻辑主语。imagine doing sth为固定短语。

    1.3 Three-quarters of all cyclical employment fluctuations in 1989-2014 were due to men losing and gaining jobs.1989-2014年间,四分之三的周期性就业波动都是由于男性失业和获得工作造成的作介词宾语

    =Three-quarters of all cyclical employment fluctuations in 1989-2014 were because men lost and gained jobs.

    1.4 A couple' s first-born being a girl increases the likelihood of their subsequently splitting up.夫妻第一胎是女孩会增加他们之后离婚的可能性。(first-born第一胎)【作主语

    =【名词从句】(The fact)That a couple' s first-born is a girl increases the likelihood that they may subsequently split up.


    二、同位语结构

    复合动名词可以搭配前面讲过的the A of B(doing sth)同位语结构。有时可以实现与同位语从句的转换(2.3/2.4)。

    2.1 The problem of parents refusing vaccines for their kids, it turns out, is far smaller than the problem of children never having the chance to be immunized.事实证明,父母拒绝为孩子接种疫苗的问题远小于孩子永远没有机会接种疫苗的问题。【it turns out类似于之前讲过的观点类插入语

    the problem of+具体问题即前面讲过的同位语结构。

    2.2 The fear of robots displacing workers has returned.对于机器人替代工人的恐惧再次出现了

    =【同位语从句】The fear that robots may displace workers has returned.

    2.3 This raises the prospect of managers using artificial intelligence to comb through employees' emails.这增加了管理者利用人工智能翻看员工邮件的可能性

    =同位语从句This raises the prospect that managers will use artificial intelligence to comb through employees' emails.


    三、without sb/sth doing sth

    在without doing sth当中,doing sth的逻辑主语一般要与句子主语保持一致。那么当doing sth有其独立的逻辑主语时,就可以在前面加上sb/sth('s)。

    3.1 One attraction of the jobs boom is its potential to help solve social problems without governments having to do or spend very much.就业繁荣的一个好处是,有可能帮助解决社会问题,而政府不必做很多事或花很多钱

    =One attraction of the jobs boom is its potential to help solve social problems while(同时) governments do not have to do or spend very much.

    3.2 Without schools and mental health services working more closely together, we will never address young people's mental health problems.如果学校和心理健康服务部门不进行更紧密的合作,我们将永远无法解决年轻人的心理健康问题

    =If schools and mental health services do not work more closely together, we will never address young people's mental health problems.

    3.3 The culture in many offices discriminates against people of ethnic minority origin often without companies and staff being aware of it.许多办公室的文化歧视少数民族出身的人,而公司和员工往往不知道这一点

    =The culture in many offices discriminates against people of ethnic minority origin often without the knowledge of companies and staff.(knowledge:知情)


    句子仿写

    1 The fear of robots displacing workers has returned.

    2 One attraction of the jobs boom is its potential to help solve social ills without governments having to do or spend very much.

    话题The benefits of online shopping.



    参考词汇

    ①commute time

    ②a wider variety of products

  • 17 Noun Clause - appositive clause  

    同位语从句的巧妙使用

    同位语从句的构成:名词概括词+that+具体的句子可以接同位语从句的名词数量不多,写作中常用的有:

    fact、idea/view/belief/notion、hope/expectation、prospect/possibility/likelihood、doubt、fear、concern、agreement、conclusion、evidence、explanation、warning

    其中一些固定短语如下:

    There is general agreement that...人们普遍认为...

    come to the conclusion that...得出如下结论:

    in the hope/expectation that...期望...(作状语)

    that名词从句不能直接放在介词后面,而the fact that同位语结构就可以解决这个问题。如:

    College graduates should wake up to the fact that it is hard to find a high-paying job.大学毕业生应该意识到:找到一份高薪工作并不容易

    1.1 The old notion that dementia is a natural part of the ageing process is deep-rooted.老年痴呆症是衰老过程的自然组成部分这一古老观念根深蒂固,三分之二的人、甚至62%的医学从业者都持有该观念。【表观点

    =It has long been believed that dementia is a natural part of the ageing processThis notion is deep-rooted.

    1.2 The recognition that behavioral psychology plays a central role in economic development is profound.人们深刻认识到,行为心理学在经济发展中起着核心作用

    1.3 People show consideration for others in the expectation that the favour will be returned.人们关心他人,期望得到回报

    冠词的选择

    同位语从句多数情况下是the+n+that。但如果表示"存在某种...",则可数名词则前面加a/an,不可数名词前面不加冠词,常用于there be句型中。

    1.4 There is broad agreement that parents' well-being is critical to infants' health and development.人们普遍认为,父母的幸福对婴儿的健康和发育至关重要。【不可数名词

    =It is broadly agreed that parents' well-being is critical to infants' health and development.

    1.5  There is a widely held view that aging hangs like a dark cloud over individuals, families, communities in many developed countries.有一种普遍的观点认为,在许多发达国家,老龄化就像乌云一样笼罩着个人、家庭和社区。【可数名词

    =Many people believe that aging...

    先行词为复数

    当表示很多人都有的主观情感时,先行词可以是复数的形式。常用的有hope/concern/fear/worry

    1.6 Fears that too many British teenagers are using e-cigarettes may be overblown.有些人担忧,太多的英国青少年在使用电子烟。这种担忧可能言过其实

    =Some people fear that too many British teenagers are using e-cigarettes. This view may be overblown.

    可以看出,使用同位语从句可以使得表述更加简洁凝练。

    1.7 There are growing concerns that the overuse of smartphones might lead to addiction and mental illness.人们越来越担心,过度使用智能手机可能导致上瘾和心理疾病

    =People are increasingly concerned that the overuse of smartphones might lead to addiction and mental illness.


    句子仿写

    1 The old notion that dementia is a natural part of the ageing process is deep-rooted.

    2 There are growing concerns that the overuse of smartphones might lead to addiction and mental illness.

    话题The importance of higher degrees(高等学历).



    参考词汇

    ①higher salaries

    ②career development

  • 16 Noun Clause - object clause  

    that名词从句

    一 形容词引导宾语从句

    除了动词外,形容词也可以引导宾语从句。即形容词+that+句。此类形容词基本都是表示人的主观情感/态度。写作中常用的有:

    afraid, surprised, anxious, worried/concerned, aware, confident, convinced, thankful, hopeful, optimistic, sceptical等。

    在写到人们对于事物的观点/态度时,就可以用到这种结构:

    1.1 Robert Lane is convinced that rasing bilingual children has cognitive benefits.罗伯特·莱恩确信,培养双语儿童有认知方面的好处。

    =Robert Lane strongly believe that rasing bilingual children has cognitive benefits.

    1.2 Housing experts appear optimistic that the trend will continue.房地产专家似乎乐观地认为,该趋势将会持续下去。【appear也是系动词,带有be的功能】

    除了作为句子的表语,还可以放在状语的位置。即形容词结构作状语,此时通常是表示原因。使用这种结构,句式的高级感就体现出来了。

    1.3 Many schools have banned conkers games, worried that they might cause injuries or trigger nut allergies.很多学校禁止了学生玩打马栗游戏,因为担心这类游戏可能导致受伤或坚果过敏。

    =...because they worry that they might cause injuries or trigger nut allergies【原因状语从句】

    =..., worrying that they might cause injuries or trigger nut allergies【分词作状语】

    1.4 A number of institutions are vying to make a bid in Chicago, well aware that presidential libraries can spur the local economy.许多机构竞相在芝加哥投标,因为他们深知总统图书馆可以刺激当地经济。【well在这里表示very】

    二 that主语从句

    当一句话要作主语时,多数情况下是用it作形式主语位于句首,而将that从句放在句末。尤其是当谓语部分较短时,更需要将that从句后置。这体现的是英文中的尾重原则:把较长、较复杂的成分放在句末。

    这类主语从句句型有:It+is+形容词/名词/动词被动/其他谓语结构+that从句。这种句式的作用是对事实/说法进行评价。其中,It和that之间的成分一般较短。

    2.1 It is unlikely that most campuses will be able to afford to expand their physical facilities to keep up with demand.不太可能大多数校区都能负担得起扩增其实体设施来跟上需求。【It+is+形容词+that】【说法】

    2.2 It is good news that many more women have climbed the corporate ladder.越来越多的女性在职场升职,这是件好事。【It+谓语动词+that】【事实】

    2.3 It is common knowledge that children learn by modeling other children.众所周知,儿童通常模仿其他儿童来学习。【It+is+名词+that】【事实】

    2.4 It is generally believed that an increase in speed jeopardizes road safety.人们普遍认为,汽车速度的增加会危害道路安全。【It+被动+that】【说法】

    使用这种被动结构时,可以避免不必要的人称主语。这句话相比于Most people believe that...来说更加地道。再比如:

    It should be noted that...应当注意...(=We should note that...)

    名词从句中的虚拟

    当形容词是表示建议、命令、劝告、决心时,名词从句中经常使用虚拟语气should,其中should可以省略,也就是说从句的谓语可以是动词原形(v/be)。写作中常见的这类形容词有:

    necessary、essential/vital/crucial/important、urgent、mandatory、imperative、advisable

    2.5 It is essential that the morals of the generation which is now growing up should no longer be dependent upon the news of the day.当前正在长大的一代人的道德观不应该再受当前新闻大事的影响,这一点很重要。

    2.6 It is imperative that the government, the tech community and companies (should) come together to form a collaborative ecosystem.政府、科技界和企业界有必要聚在一起形成一个合作体系。

    如果是表示具体的行为,也可以转化为It is adj (for sb) to do sth的形式:

    It is imperative for the government, the tech community and companies to come together to form a collaborative ecosystem.

    句子仿写

    1 Many schools have banned conkers games, worried that they might cause injuries or trigger nut allergies.

    2 It is generally believed that an increase in speed jeopardizes road safety.

    话题:The risks of artificial intelligence.


    参考词汇:

    ①invade personal privacy
    ②massive unemployment

  • 15 Inversion(2)  

    倒装句的使用(二)

    一、only的倒装

    当句子的状语部分包含only时,为了加强语气可以将该状语和助动词提前到主语之前。

    句型构造:Only+状语+助动词+主语+其他成分

    其中,这里的状语可以是副词、介词结构或状语从句适用于这种情况的状语从句主要为when/if/once状语从句,表示某种条件/情况

    1.1  Only by doing that can we achieve both sensible and sustainable results.只有这样做我们才能取得合理且持续的成果

    =We can achieve both sensible and sustainable results only by doing that.

    Only by doing sth can....“只有...才能...”,表示做某事的效果

    1.2 Only recently has this phase been recognised as the most important for brain development after infancy.直到最近,这个阶段(青少年阶段)才被认为是婴儿期后大脑发育最重要的阶段

    =This phase has been recognised as the most important (phase) for brain development after infancy only recently.

    1.3 Only when companies measure their social and environmental impact will we have socially and environmentally responsible organisations.只有当各大企业衡量其社会和环境影响时,我们才会有对社会和环境负责的企业

    =We will  have socially and environmentally responsible organisations only when companies measure their social and environmental impact.

    1.4 Before becoming mothers, women's compensation more or less keeps pace with men's. Only once they have children do their economic trajectories begin to lag.在成为母亲之前,女性的薪酬或多或少与男性持平。只有当她们有了孩子时,她们的经济轨迹才会开始滞后。【men's=men's compensation


    二、让步状语从句的倒装

    as/though可以引导让步倒装句,表示让步。这种结构有很多种,其中较为常见的一种是基于主系表结构:Adj+as/though+主语+系动词+(其他)。适合在写作中模仿。

    注意,这里的though不能改为although。

    2.1 Beneficial as this process is in the long run, parents are often paying for things which are supposed to be funded by the state.虽然这一过程从长远来看是有益的,但父母通常会为本应由国家资助的项目买单

    =Though/Although this process is beneficial in the long run, ..

    2.2 Disruptive though it was, last year's abrupt transition to remote work may prove considerably smoother than the shift to whatever counts as normal in the post-pandemic era.去年向远程工作的突然转变尽管具有负面影响,但是可能比后疫情时代向任何可视为常态的转变都要顺利得多

    Disruptive though it was在这句话中是修饰主语,因此也可以放在主语后作插入语,同时使用省略的though状语从句(参考第9节的二、三):

    Last year's abrupt transition to remote work, though disruptive, may prove...

    2.3 Simple as the problem may be to describe, the approach taken by ASAP is complicated.尽管问题可能很简单,但ASAP采取的方法却很复杂

    =Though/Although the problem may be simple to describe,....

    the problem may be simple to describe相当于It may be simple to describe the problem的变形


    句子仿写

    1 Only when companies measure their social and environmental impact will we have socially and environmentally responsible organisations.

    2 Beneficial as this process is in the long run, parents are often paying for things which are supposed to be funded by the state.

    话题How to reduce people's dependence on private cars?


    参考词汇

    ①oil prices

    ②subsidies for public transport


  • 14 Comparison (the more... the more..)  

    比较结构的使用

    一、比较主从句的状语部分

    as/than比较状从除了最简单的比较主从句的主语之外,还有一种常见的就是比较主从句中的状语,即比较同一事物的不同情况。此时,从句的主干部分和前面主句是相同的,因此直接写成主语+助动词(be/do)的形式,主句+助动词通常也可以省略

    1.1 The economic recovery started earlier in Britain than (it did) in the rest of the EU.英国的经济复苏开始的时间要早于欧盟其他国家。[it did=it started]

    比较主语the recovery在不同国家的情况。

    1.2 For poor students, who often lack the connections needed to succeed, the gaokao is the better way out than (it is) for those from more affluent families.贫困学生通常缺乏成功所需的关系。相比于家庭更好的学生来说,高考对于贫困学生是更好的出路。[it is=it is the good way out]

    由于For poor students这个状语后面还接了一个非限定从,非常长,因此放在句首。如果没有这个非限定从,则通常写成:

    The gaokao is the better way out for poor students than for those from more affluent families.

    1.3 In many ways, children are better off than they were a generation or two ago.从很多方面来说,现在的儿童比一两代之前的儿童过得要好。[they were=they were well off(better off的原形)]

    主句中通过助动词are表明了当前这个时间点,因此可以也不加状语today/nowadays。本句比较的是同一人群在不同时间点的状况:Sb/Sth+than/as比较结构+过去时间点

    1.4 Many governments have tightened up their rules, requiring parents to supervise young children more closely than (they did) in the past.多国政府都加强了其规定,要求父母比过去更加密切地监管其孩子。(搭配分词状语结构)

    当主从句的时态不一致时,最好保留主语+助动词

    Corporate spending on computers and software is growing as rapidly as it did at the peak of the high-tech boom.企业在电脑和软件上的花费正在快速增长,速度跟高科技热潮巅峰时一样快。[it did=it grew]


    二、The more...the more...结构

    这个句型表示"...越..., ...越...",用于对两件相关的事进行同向比较。从功能上来说,类似于if条件状语从句。其中,前半部分是从句后半部分是主句,即the+比较级(从句),the+比较级(主句)more代表形容词或副词的比较级

    the more...the more...结构的本质就是将从句和主句中比较级成分提前了,所比较的结构可以是主语、宾语、表语、状语

    2.1 The more we help others, the more we receive in return.帮助别人越多,我们获得的回报也就越多

    从:(if) we help others more()

    主:we receive more() in return

    搭配It is adj to do句型

    2.2 The longer businesses stagnate, the harder it is to revive them.企业停滞的越久,就越难复苏

    从:(if) businesses stagnate long(er)()

    主:it is hard(er)() to revive them.

    搭配There be句型

    2.3 The more people there are in employment, and the more factories and roads there are for them to use, the bigger an economy will be.就业的人越多、可供人们使用的工厂和道路越多,经济规模就会越大

    从:(if)there are more people() in employment, and there are more factories and roads() for them to use

    主:an economy will be bigger()

    如果句子是带be动词的主系表结构,同时主语不是代词时,通常可以将be省略,更加简洁地道:

    2.4 The more complex a product(is), the greater the risk of disruption(is).产品越复杂,受影响的风险就越大

    2.5 The more effort each worker puts in, the higher the firm's output(is) and the greater its profits(are).每个员工投入的努力越多,该企业的产出就越高,收益也越高



    句子仿写

    Many governments have tightened up their rules, requiring parents to supervise young children more closely than in the past.【分词状语+比较结构】

    2 The longer businesses stagnate, the harder it is to revive them.【it is adj to do+比较结构】

    话题How to reduce carbon dioxide?


    参考词汇

    ①renewable energy

    ②public means of transport

  • 13 Specification (the A of B , which is that)  

    具体化

    具体化,或者说解释说明,是英文写作当中很常见的一种句子成分间的逻辑关系。之前讲过的分词状语和同位语就可以起到解释说明的作用。这里再介绍几个其他结构。

    一  介词of引导的同位语the A of B

    其中,A是概括词,是对B性质的概括;而B是具体的事物。B既可以是名词短语,也可以是动名词。如the problem/issue of air pollution(环境污染问题)、the city of Shanghai(上海市)

    写作中常见的引导这种结构的名词有:

    problem/issue、idea/notion/thought、hope、possibility/prospectpracticetradition、option 等等


    1.1 At least two-thirds of Japanese are lukewarm about the idea of leaving the country.至少有三分之二的日本人对出国旅游的想法无感

    the idea of n/doing sth是个常用的写作表达,用来表示某种具体的想法

    1.2 the European tradition of cramming everyone's holidays into August欧洲将每个人的假期塞进八月的传统。【在概括词前面加上形容词修饰词

    1.3 The government called for an end to the parental habit of comparing their offspring with others.政府要求结束父母将其子女与别人对比的习惯

    1.4 Can lending controls solve the problem of unaffordable housing?贷款控制措施能解决住房负担不起的问题吗?【solve-problem是常用组合,因此在unaffordable housing前面加上the problem of,句子读起来会更自然

    1.5 Removing chairs has the benefit of making meetings shorter.移除椅子可以起到减少开会时间的好处

    1.6 Such a simple measure would have the double benefit of increasing the tax take and, hopefully, reducing house prices.这样一种简单的措施将会产生增加税收和降低房价(如果有希望的话)的双重好处。【引导两个并列好处的句型】


    在the A of B结构中,A也可以是复数,此时B是多个成分。如:

    the problems of environmental pollution and noise pollution环境污染和噪音污染问题

    当表示单位和具体的数值时,则前面的the改为a(an),即a(an) A of B,如:

    Students in the ASAP programme have a three-year graduation rate of 53%.ASAP项目学生的三年毕业率为53%.=The three-year graduation rate for students in the ASAP programme is 53%。


    二 , which is that...结构

    可以使用, which is that...这一非限制性结构,用一句话对前面的名词进行解释说明。其中,that...是表语从句

    2.1 That points to another lessonwhich is that the remedy to technology-related problems often involves more technology.这表明了另一个教训:科技相关问题的解决方法往往涉及更多的科技

    , which is that...这个非限制性结构通过一句话对前面的泛指名词进行具体化

    当然,也可以直接使用冒号

    That points to another lesson: (thatthe remedy to technology-related problems often involves more technology.【冒号: 后面是句子时,可以加上that

    或者namely:

    That points to another lesson, namely that the remedy to technology-related problems often involves more technology.

    2.2 It's in keeping with a central tenet of acupuncturewhich is that change is good.这符合针灸的一个中心原则,即改变是好的


    三 破折号 —

    破折号中的信息较为次要。当引导的同位语是可有可无的信息或读者熟知的信息时,可以将逗号改为破折号。

    3.1 The classic model of educationa burst at the start and top-ups through company trainingis breaking down. 传统的教育模式—在初期(中小学)的短期大量学习,然后通过公司培训加以补充—正在失效

    破折号中的信息相当于主语The classic model of education的同位语。这个信息属于大众熟知的信息,因此放在破折号里面。

    3.2 Policymakers have come to recognise the enormous redistributive power of a booming economyone that generates both plentiful jobs and healthy wage growth—for low-­income and minority groups.政策制定者已经认识到,蓬勃发展的经济—可以创造大量工作和良性工资增长的经济—对于低收入群体和少数群体具有巨大的再分配能力


    破折号引导的同位语,大多都可以改为逗号的形式,如:

    The classic model of educationa burst at the start and top-ups through company trainingis breaking down. 

    相比而言,破折号使得句子结构和主次更加一目了然。因此,当同位语较长且可有可无时,可以选择用破折号

    3.3 On January 1st "gaming  disorder"in which games are played compulsivelygains recognition from the World Health Organisation.一月一号,“游戏障碍”—沉迷玩游戏无法控制—获得了世界卫生组织的认可。【起解释说明的也可以是非限制性定语从句】

    3.4 In places with the infrastructure that EVS(electric vehicles) neededsmooth roads, which reduced jostling of heavy batteries, and ample electricityproduction of EVS was unusually common.在有电动汽车所需的基础设施—平整的道路(可以降低重点池的碰撞)和大量的电—的地方,电动汽车的生产非常常见

    这句话中的破折号如果改为逗号,句子结构就非常乱了,因为破折号中还包含一个非限定从。


    句子仿写

    1 Such a simple measure would have the double benefit of increasing the tax take and, hopefully, reducing house prices.

    2 Policymakers have come to recognise the enormous redistributive power of a booming economyone that generates both plentiful jobs and healthy wage growth—for low-­income and minority groups

    话题The consequences of population ageing.

    参考观点:

    ①shortage of labour force劳动力短缺

    ②impede economic and social progress阻碍经济和社会发展

  • 12 Give an Example  

    举例结构多样化

    一、同位语结构

    除了使用介词including/such as/like进行举例,还可以使用副词引导的同位语结构。即范围副词+同位语,通常紧接被举例的名词后。用于缩小范围,一般是其中占比例较大的人/事物写作中常用的这类副词有:

    especially/particularly(in particular)/mostly/notably/mainly

    1.1 Increasing numbers of hikersmostly well-heeled northern Europeans, visit places like the Agrafa.越来越多的徒步旅行者,大多是富有的北欧人,去阿格拉法等地方旅行。【范围缩小

    1.2 Giving has become all the rage among today's rich and famous, from billionairesnotably Bill Gates and Warren Buffet, to celebrity baby-adopters such as Madonna.在当今的富人和名人中,捐赠已经成为一种风气。这些名流有亿万富翁,尤其是比尔·盖茨和沃伦·巴菲特,以及麦当娜等名人收养者。【from...to...用于举例,类似于ranging from...to...】

    范围副词+同位语结构可以搭配ones/those(形容词+ones或those+后置定语)

    1.3 This shift will be a welcome change for many employeesespecially those who used to have long, arduous commutes.对于许多员工来说,尤其是对那些过去通勤时间长且艰苦的员工来说,这一转变将是一个受欢迎的变化

    1.4 Many countries, especially rich ones, now cite climate change when trying to persuade their electorates to switch to nuclear energy, which has negligible greenhouse-gas emissions.许多国家,尤其是富裕国家,现在在试图说服选民转而使用核能时,都以气候变化为理由,因为核能的温室气体排放量可以忽略不计

    1.5 The lower earner, often the woman, might stay home.夫妻中收入较低的一方,通常是女性,可能要留在家。【这里用the+名词单数,特指一个家庭中的男性/女性】

    除了是名词成分之外,也可以是介词结构(介词结构本身就可以表示范围)。如:

    1.6 The child-rearing practices now embraced by affluent parents in many parts of the rich world, particularly in America, go far beyond an adjustment to external conditions.很多发达国家(尤其是美国)的富裕父母如今采用的育儿方法远不只是对外部条件的调整

    也可以直接在一句话后面接 , 副词+介词短语 来缩小范围。

    1.7 The rate of the disease has been growing, particularly among elderly people.这种疾病的比例在不断上升,尤其是在老年人中



    二、for example的妙用

    for example除了放在句首修饰整句话,还可以放在句子中修饰句子成分。但是无论放在哪都必须遵循一个原则:去掉for example,句子前后依然可以连起来构成完整的一句话。这里讲一种母语人士经常用的用法。

    将for example放在作为例子的状语之前,表明该状语是例子。for example前面要加上逗号与前面的句子成分隔开。

    2.1 Many people volunteer information, for example to medical trials, on the understanding that this will happen.许多人自愿提供信息,例如提供给医疗试验,因为他们知道信息最终都会泄露的。【on the understanding that知道...】

    to medical trials是个例子,作状语修饰volunteer information。去掉for example:

    Many people volunteer information to medical trials on the understanding that this will happen.

    for example与后面的状语构成一个整体,可以视为插入语,去掉后句子依然完整:

    Many people volunteer information on the understanding that this will happen.

    2.2 School closures accomplish little, because youngsters continue to catch and pass on the virus, for example in child care, in shops, or while being looked after by relatives.关闭学校收效甚微,因为青少年依然会感染和传播病毒,例如在儿童保育中、商店中或在亲戚的照顾时感染和传播。【in child care/in shops介词状语 while being looked after by relatives状语从句。三个状语并列】

    in child care,...by relatives是例子,作状语修饰catch and pass on the virus。去掉for example:

    School closures accomplish little, because youngsters continue to catch and pass on the virus in child care, in shops, or while being looked after by relatives. 

    2.3 People need to be encouraged to set aside enough money for their retirement, for example through auto-enrolment schemes.需要鼓励人们留出足够的钱用于退休,例如通过自动注册方案


    仿写练习

    1 This shift will be a welcome change for many employeesespecially those who used to have long, arduous commutes.

    2 People need to be encouraged to set aside enough money for their retirement, for example through auto-enrolment schemes.

    话题The advantages of working in a large company.


    参考词汇

    ①benefits and perks

    ②working experience

  • 11 Inversion (1)  

    倒装句的巧妙使用(一)

    一 主系表的倒装

    写作中较为常见的一类倒装为主系表结构的倒装。倒装时,系动词(be或其他系动词)不变,主语和表语互换,即表语+系动词+主语

    A 表语是介词结构

    这类介词短语通常字面意思都带有方位/位置的含义。

    倒装的作用:承上启下,或者避免头重脚轻(主语太长而谓语被远远抛在句末)

    1.1 At the heart of fiction lies a unique human talent to identify with the pain, pleasure, joy and boredom of others.小说的核心是一种独特的人类天赋,能够感同身受他人的痛苦、乐趣、开心和无聊。【lie也是系动词,在这里相当于is】

    =A unique human talent to identify with the pain, pleasure, joy and boredom of others lies at the heart of fiction.

    相比之下,按照正常语序写的话,会显得有些头重脚轻。而使用倒装句则可以解决这一问题。

    1.2 Among the breathless headlines prompted by the pandemic are those warning of a new wave of job-destroying automation.在这场疫情引发的令人窒息的头条新闻中,有一些是警告新一轮破坏就业的自动化的新闻。those warning of=headlines warning of=headlines that warn of】

    =Headlines that warn of a new wave of job-destroying automation are among the breathless headlines prompted by the pandemic.

    the breathless...pandemic是引入性的信息,而automation则是接下来文章要讨论的话题。这里采用倒装句可以起到启下的作用,使上下文更连贯。

    1.3 Countries in the OECD have very different immigration rates. From 1990 to 2000, the United States' immigration rate was 5.7%. At the other end of the spectrum was Estonia, with a rate of -16.7%.经合组织国家的移民率差别很大。从1990年到2000年,美国的移民率为5.7%。而最低值则是爱沙尼亚,其移民率为-16.7%。【be at the other end of the spectrum相反;是另一种完全不同的情况】

    At the other end of the spectrum放在句首,可以起到承接上文的信息:表明与US相反的关系。


    B 表语与上文构成比较

    当主系表结构的表语与上文构成比较关系(大于、小于或同等)时,且表语较短时,通常可以进行倒装。这样可以使前后的逻辑结构更加清晰。此时的表语经常是形容词。常用的有以下几个:equally/just as(同样)/more/less+adj


    2.1 The World Bank fears that the infestation could cause economic damage in the Horn of Africa and Yemen if remedial steps are not taken. Even more worrying is that the zone of devastation is expanding.

    世界银行担心,如果不采取补救措施,这种虫害可能会在非洲之角和也门造成经济损失。甚至更令人担忧的是,破坏区域正在扩大

    even more体现出了与上一句的逻辑关系,且worrying与fears是同义替换。


    2.2 Cash is dying out because of two factors. One is demand: younger consumers want payment systems that plug seamlessly into their digital lives. But equally important is that suppliers are developing fast, easy-to-use payment technologies .现金的消亡是由于两种因素。一是需求:年轻消费者想要能无缝对接他们数字生活的支付系统。但同样重要的是,供应商正在开发快速、易于使用的支付技术

    equally important用于表明与第一点之间的比较;同时主语部分that....较长,因此适合使用倒装句。


    2.3 Also worth noting is the similarity in the direction of change between the 1920s and the 1990s.同样值得注意的是,20世纪20年代和20世纪90年代的变化方向相似。【be worth doing】

    表语also worth noting放在前面,说明接下来的内容和前一句并列。起到了承上启下的作用。同时这句话的主语部分也较长,因此倒装之后效果很好。

    Also worth noting/mentioning is/are...同样值得注意/一提的是...。可以用来引导并列的论点或例子

    除了主系表结构之外,be+v-ed也经常进行这类倒装,常与less搭配:

    2.4 The pandemic has had all sorts of unexpected consequences, from a boom in sourdough-bread baking to more people listening to nostalgic music on Spotify. Less noticed is a once-in-a-generation surge in startups.疫情带来了各种意想不到的后果,比如烤面包的热潮以及更多人在Spotify上听怀旧音乐。不太引人注意的是,难得一见的创业公司数量激增。【more people listening...是个复合动名词,之后将详细讲到】

    less noticed承上启下。表示上一句中提到的consequences很多人都注意到了,而a surge in startups则不那么引人注意。

    2.5 In America the unemployment rate is only 3.6%, (which is) the lowest in half a century. Less appreciated is the abundance of jobs across most of the rich world.美国的失业率只有3.6%,是半个世纪以来的最低水平。而很多人没有意识到的是,在大多数富裕国家,就业机会很丰富。appreciate意识到

    less appreciated暗示上一句是众所周知的事情,而the rich-world jobs boom则是很多人没有意识到的事实。后者也是文章的话题。


    二 否定副词倒装

    当句子中包含否定副词时,可以将否定副词和助动词(be/have/do/情态动词)提前到主语之前,从而加强语气。


    常见否定副词:rarely/never/hardly/seldom/no

    3.1 Never before have real house prices risen so fast in so many countries.实际房价从来没有在这么多国家增长这么快速

    =Real house prices have never before risen so fast in so many countries.

    3.2 Rarely do we take enough time to assess the impact of our actions.我们很少花足够的时间来评估我们行为造成的影响

    =We rarely take enough time to assess the impact of our actions.

    这里的助动词do就是根据一般时态的谓语动词take提取出来的。

    3.3 Under no circumstances can employers gain in business by cheating their employees.无论在什么情况下,雇主都不能通过欺骗员工来在商业中获利。【under no circumstances无论如何...都不】

    包含no的状语短语与副词一样,可以做这种倒装,类似的短语还有:in no way(决不)


    句子仿写

    1 Rarely do we take enough time to assess the impact of our actions.

    2 Even more worrying is that the zone of devastation is expanding.

    话题The drawbacks of social media.



    参考观点

    ①negative information负面信息

    ③a waste of time浪费时间

  • 10 Secondary important part in Juxtaposition  

    并列中的次要化

    当多个在内容上并列的名词成分重要性不同时,就需要通过一些结构对其中的次要信息进行处理,从而体现出信息的主次。

     介词结构

    in addition to...besides...、as well as...、apart from... 除...之外(...也)

    这几个表达都属于介词性质,后面加名词/动名词当后面接动名词时,该动词的逻辑主语一般要和句子主语保持一致

    A 次要信息承接上文

    该结构放在主句前,可以用于承接上文。后面最好是对上文的同义替换,这样才能起到加分的效果。如果想不到同义替换,则可以直接写成:Besides, +句、In addition, +句 等。

    1.1 In addition to the stigma the disease brings, there is another reason why people are reluctant to confront the dementia emergency: fear.除了这种疾病所带来的羞耻,人们不愿面对痴呆症危机的另一个原因就是恐惧

    the stigma the disease brings是上文的信息,another reason...则是接下来要讨论的信息。

    1.2 As well as monitoring biodiversity, technology can also be deployed to protect it.科技除了用于监控生物多样性,也可以用来保护生物多样性。【monitoring是逻辑主语是句子主语technology】

    这句话是个段落中心句。monitoring biodiversity承接上一段现象。be deployed to protect it则是本段要讲的内容。

    1.3 It is a laborious task to sort through thousands of written applicationsAs well as being time-consuming, it is not very effective and subject to bias.对数千份书面申请进行分类是一项艰巨的任务。它除了耗时,效率也不高,而且容易受到偏见的影响

    time-consuming是形容词,放在介词(as)后面,就需要在前面加上助动词be→being,从而变成动名词being time-consuming。



    B 次要信息与上文无关

    此时的次要信息通常是大众非常熟知的信息,而主句中给出的则是更加新奇的信息,也就是文章要讨论的主要内容。

    1.4 Five years ago, top graduates competed to join home-grown technology giants like Alibaba, Tencent or Huawei. In addition to high salaries, such firms had free-thinking cultures and seemed to respect young people.五年前,一流的毕业生竞相进入阿里巴巴、腾讯、华为这些本国科技巨头。除了高薪水,这类企业还有还有自由思考的文化,而且似乎也尊重年轻人

    high salaries大众熟知的信息,因此放在了次要的位置,重要信息为主句中的free-thinking cultures/seemed to respect young people。

    1.5 As well as filtering airface-masks may boost the immune system.除了过滤空气,口罩也许会提高免疫系统

    filtering air的逻辑主语为句子主语face-masksfiltering air同样是大众熟知的信息,非文章要讨论的主要内容。

    as well as引导并列结构

    as well as这个短语还可以连接前后两个并列成分,类似于and。与and不同的是,as well as后面可以是重要性更低的信息。as well asl前后形式需保持一致:

    1.6 The children of wealthy families have access to the best schools as well as to after-school tutoring and extra-curricular activities.富裕家庭的孩子有途径上最好的学校,也有途径参加课外辅导和课外活动


    二 和主语并列

    有时,我们需要将讨论的话题与其他信息(更次要的信息)进行并列,从而引出句子谓语部分。如果使用and就无法体现出这种主次之分。此时可以使用along with/plus/combined with/together with/coupled with/as well as+n,放在主语(话题)后作插入语

    由于该结构是作插入语,因此不影响句子的谓语单复数

    2.1 Such investmentalong with improvements to building codes, has reduced risks.这种投资,以及建筑规范的改进,降低了风险

    2.2 Thiscombined with California's reputation as the home of technological innovation, makes the place ideal for developing monitoring systems.这一点,加上加州作为科技创新之乡的声誉,使这个地方成为开发监测系统的理想之地

    2.3 This greater choiceplus the fact that digital connections are made only with mutual consent—makes the digital dating market far more efficient than the offline kind.这种选择性的增加,再加上网络联系只有在双方同意的情况下才能建立起来,使得网络约会市场的效率远高于线下约会市场。【plus是介词,后面不能直接加that名词从句,需要在that前加上the fact】【the offline kind=the offline market

    可以看出,使用这种结构时,主语很多情况下都是对上文讨论话题的指代。在讨论作用/结果时非常实用:主语只是其中一个因素,加上一些其他因素,共同导致了谓语所阐述的结果/结论


    仿写练习

    要求:第二句承接第一句

    1 Such investment, along with improvements to building codes, has reduced risks.

    2 In addition to raising moneythe tax would probably slow the pace of automation.

    话题The importance of regualr exercise.


    参考词汇:

    ①physical health

    ②work-related stress

  • 9 Juxtaposition  

    并列结构的使用

    一、形式保持一致

    在并列结构中,并列的几个成分在形式上一般需要保持一致,即保持对称性。比如,不将动名词与不定式并列、不将名词与that名词从句并列。

    当并列的成分前面与介词相接时,经常会将介词(或不定式to)置于并列结构中,更加地道,且结构更清晰。尤其适用于not only(just)...but also...、both...and...、either...or...这几个结构。

    1.1 Government investment in early education pays off both for individuals and for society at large.政府对于早教的投资既会使个人得到回报,也会使整个社会得到回报

    1.2 Many students buy the university experience not just to boost their earning capacity, but also to get away from their parents, make friends and find partners.很多学生上大学不仅仅是为了提升赚钱能力,还是为了远离父母,交朋友和寻找伴侣。【to...目的状语】

    1.3 Governments have a vital role to play, not just by spending more, but also by spending wisely.政府起到很重要的作用,不仅仅是要通过增加支出,也要通过合理支出。【方式状语】

    如果写成by not just spending more, but also spending wisely,就会显得很不自然,不符合native的写作习惯。

    并列两个从句时,第二个从句引导词不能省略

    1.4 There are growing concerns that overuse of smartphones might lead to addiction and mental illnessand that spending too much time sitting still in front of a screen will stop them from exercising and make them fat.人们越来越担心,过度使用智能手机可能会导致上瘾和心理疾病,而且花太多时间坐在屏幕前会阻止他们锻炼,使他们变胖



    二、是A非B

    表示是A非B,有多种并列结构可以选择。主要有not A(,)but BA, not BA rather than B其中,A/B可以是名词形容词介词结构从句等。

    2.1 For now, most short-term or blended-learning programs exist not at universities but in the professional world.目前,大多数短期或混合学习项目不是存在于高校,而是在职场

    2.2 The driving factor behind the decline is that public transport in LA is mostly a safety-net for the poor, not a service for most people.造成这种下降的主导因素为:洛杉矶的公共交通主要是穷人的安全保障,而不是针对大多数人的服务

    not/but搭配强调句(It is...that/who...):

    2.3 Sometimes it is machines, not people, that are trained in virtual environments.有时在虚拟环境中接受训练的是机器,而不是人

    当but后面的成分较长时,为了使句子更加平衡,通常会将but...置于整句话之后

    2.4 It is not the size of a nation that is important, but the size of its ambition and of the contribution it can make to the world.重要的不是一个国家的规模,而是其志向的大小和对世界的贡献的大小

    2.5 Young people have chosen to continue their education rather than risk entering an unstable jobs market.年轻人选择继续接受教育,而不是冒险进入不稳定的就业市场。【rather than常用于并列两个动词成分

    2.6 The lesson of the past decade is that technological change complements jobs rather than destroys them.过去十年的教训就是,科技变化补充工作,而不是毁灭工作。


    句子仿写

    1 Government investment in early education pays off both for individuals and for society at large.

    2 It is not the size of a nation that is important, but the size of its ambition and of the contribution it can make to the world.

    话题The hazards of traditional cars.



    参考观点

    ①the environment 环境  

    ②human safety人身安全 

  • 8 Avoid Repetition  

    避免重复的几种方式

    一 避免名词成分的重复

    one/ones

    当重复提及前面已经出现过的名词中心词时(相隔较近),可以使用one/ones代替。代指可数名词单数one,代指复数onesone/ones一般会被定语修饰,表明具体的类别,多数情况下是:形容词+one(s)

    1.1 Higher-skilled women are less likely to lose their jobs than lower-skilled ones.高技能女性失业的可能性要低于低技能女性


    1.2 As offices fill up, workers who turn up in person may forge closer bonds with their teams and company leaders than remote ones.随着办公室人越来越多,亲自到场的员工相比于远程办公的员工来说,可能会与其团队和公司领导建立更紧密的联系

    当one被形容词修饰,同时是单数时,用作a/an+adj+one

    1.3 That is one riskmore urgent one stems from small rises in the sea level.这是一个风险。另一个更紧急的风险则来自于海平面的微小上升。【引导并列的分论点】

    one/ones是用作泛指,因此数量通常有很多。如果表示的某类事物单数或不可数名词,可以用sort/type/kind这几个词,构成the+adj+sort/type/kind

    Experts think cyberbullying is generally less damaging than the physical kind.专家认为网络欺凌的伤害性通常要低于现实中的欺凌


    that/those

    如果重复的名词中心词是上文the A of B(或B's A)A+后置定语A,通常使用that/those来进行指代。that指代单数,those指代复数。常用于比较并列中。

    1.4 At present Greece's annual carbon emissions are a third higher than those of Portugal.目前,希腊的碳年排放量比葡萄牙的碳年排放量高出三分之一

    也可以将those of Portugal改为所有格形式Portugal's =Portugal's annual carbon emissions。再比如:

    America's house prices are up 5% compared with a year ago, whereas Germany's are 11% higher.美国的房价与一年前相比上涨了5%,而德国的房价上涨了11%

    1.5 Cars made in China are better than those made in Japan.中国制造的汽车比日本制造的汽车更好

    1.6 The number of solar-panel installers has now exceeded that of wind-turbine technicians.太阳能电池板安装工的数量现已超过了风力涡轮机技术人员的数量

    在主系表结构中,当主语和表语的名词中心词相同时,就可以使用that/those。

    1.7 The most popular employees at work are those who can lighten the mood with a joke or two.工作中最受欢迎的员工是哪些用一两个玩笑来舒缓心情的员工


    二 避免谓语的重复--so倒装句

    主要形式为:so+助动词+主语助动词包括:be/have/do/情态动词。其中so是与上一个分句相同的谓语/表语。当前后句主语不同,而谓语动词/表语相同时,即可用到这个句型。

    该句型是完整的一句话,其位置可以有三种情况:①句A. So倒装句  ②从句, so倒装句  ③句A+连词(and/but)+so倒装句

    2.1 The num­ber of cyclists may be increasing in the Arab world, but so is the number of cars.阿拉伯国家中骑自行车的人可能在增加,但是汽车的数量也在增加。[句A+连词+so倒装句]

    so is the number of cars=the number of cars is increasing

    2.2 Once one company resumes meetings in person, so will its competitors.一旦一家公司恢复了线下会议,其竞争者也将效仿。[从句, so倒装句]

    so will its competitors=its competitors wil resumes meetings in person

    这句话也可以使用do so(代指前面出现的动作):

    Once one company resumes meetings in personits competitors will do so, too.

    2.3 It is not just money that can be stolen. So too can all the other data stored on a phone.可能被偷的不只是钱,手机上存储的所有其他数据也是如此。[句A. So倒装句]

    这句话在文中起承上启下的作用:money承上,data启下。两者并列,因此So后面加了一个too。该句型可以用来承上启下,引出另一个并列论点/例子

    It is not just A that/who...So too+助动词+B

    2.4 As the effectiveness of antibiotics waned, so did survival rates for cancer, which are now lower than a decade ago.随着抗生素的有效性逐渐下降,癌症的生存率也在逐渐下降—现在的癌症生存率比十年前要低[从句, so倒装句]

    As A..., so do/have/be B.可以表示两种方向相同的趋势。再比如:

    As universities have grownso have doubts about the "return on investment".随着大学数量的增多,人们对于读大学的“投资回报”也更加质疑


    句子仿写

    1 As offices fill up, workers who turn up in person may forge closer bonds with their teams and company leaders than remote ones.

    2 The num­ber of cyclists may be increasing in the Arab world, but so is the number of cars.

    话题The disadvantages of online learning.

    要求:在第一句的仿写中,对rich students和poor students进行比较,并搭配非限定从、分词状语或with结构

  • 7 Interlude, Parenthesis  
    Parenthesis

    插入语的几种使用

    插入语可以是一个短语从句。在写作当中,恰当地使用插入语,会给文章更加地道,信息更加凝练。接下来介绍几种比较实用的插入语。

    一、修饰多个并列成分的最后一个

    当需要用状语对多个并列成分的其中一个进行额外的补充修饰时,可以将该并列成分放在最后,作为状语的修饰成分就可以作为插入语放在前面。

    作为该插入语的状语成分通常是:副词(eventually/potentially)或介词结构(for the most studious students)


    1.1 Children who play sport tend to get higher grades andeventually, better-paid jobs.运动的孩子通常会获得更好的成绩,并且最终或找到更高薪的工作

    =Children who play sport tend to get higher grades. They also tend to get better-paid jobs eventually.

    如果并列的几个成分是动词,则副词前后无需逗号,因为副词可以直接修饰动词:

    Children who play sport tend to get higher grades and eventually land better-paid jobs. [land:找到]


    1.2 Synthetic biology will have a similar effect, transforming humans' relationships with each other andpotentially, their own biological nature.合成生物学将产生类似的影响,改变人类彼此之间的关系,并可能改变人类自身的生物学性质。【transforming...分词作状语,对have a similar effect进行具体化】

    =Synthetic biology will have a similar effect, transforming humans' relationships with each other and potentially transforming their own biological nature.


    1.3 An academic track starts at senior high school and, for the most studious students, ends with a four-year degree course at university.学术课程从高中开始,对最勤奋的学生来说,会以大学四年的学位课程结束

    for the most studious对并列的第二个谓语ends...进行额外的限定

    相比于下面这样来说更加地道简洁:

    An academic track starts at senior high school, and it ends with a four-year degree course at university for the most studious students.



    二、状语作为插入语

    状语修饰整句话时,除了放在句子前后,还可以放在句中作插入语。常放在主语后/助动词后

    作用通常是:将该状语信息次要化,突出句子中更重要的信息有时,我们想让状语信息先被读者读到,但又不想占用句首的位置,这时就可以使用这种插入语。

    2.1 The tendency to be happy or miserable isto some extent, passed on through DNA.快乐或痛苦的倾向在某种程度上是通过DNA传递的

    =To some extent, the tendency to be happy or miserable is passed on through DNA.

    2.2 What's more, those who do have access to the Internet are, by and large, well-off.另外,那些确实可以上网的人一般都比较富裕

    这句话的句首已经有个状语What's more了,如果再在What's more后面接个状语, by and large,就不符合写作习惯了。因此这里只能作为插入语。

    2.3 An important motive for some countries to pursue hydropower isironically, the environment.讽刺的是,有些国家追求水电能的一个重要动机是环境

    =Ironically, an important motive for some countries to pursue hydropower is the environment.

    2.4 There is a structural problem in some industries. The hospitality sector, for example, is full of low-skilled young people.但是在某些行业还存在结构性问题。例如,餐饮业有很多低技能的年轻人。【The hospitality sector是对some industries的举例】

    写作中常用的这类固定短语还有:

    in some/many waysto some extentin a senseby and large、generally/strictly/honestly speaking、however等。


    三 插入语表观点

    引导观点时,有时为了突出观点本身,而弱化是谁的观点,可以将表观点的成分作为插入语,放在观点信息前(很多情况下是主语后)。该成分可以是:

    A 表观点的介词短语(句1);

    B 人+观点动词(句2);

    C it is+观点动词被动(句3)。

    3.1 The fundamental problem, in their view, is that the global economy has been maintained in a "stable disequilibrium" by central bank policy.在他们看来,根本问题在于,全球经济一直被央行政策维持在“稳定的不平衡状态”。【第二次提到某人的观点,可以通过插入语将其次要化

    3.2 What determines vulnerability to automation, experts say, is whether or not the work is routine.专家们说,决定受自动化影响程度的是:工作否是常规工作

    常规句:Experts say that what determines vulnerability to automation is whether or not the work is routine.

    3.3 Lengthy protection, it is argued, increases the incentive to create.有人认为长期的保护会增加创作的动力。

    常规句:It is argued that lengthy protection increases the incentive to create.

    作为插入语时,that失去了作为连接词的意义,因此必须去掉。

    造句:One solution, I believe, is to turn away from fossil fuels and switch to green energy such as wind energy.我认为一个解决办法就是不再使用化石能源,而转而使用风能等清洁能源


    句子仿写

    1 Synthetic biology will have a similar effect, transforming humans' relationships with each other andpotentially, their own biological nature.

    2 There is a structural problem in some industries. The hospitality sector, for example, is full of low-skilled young people.

    话题The negative effects of global warming.


    参考词汇

    ①extreme weather

    ②rising sea levels

  • 6 Shortened Adverbial Clause  

    状语从句的简化


    一、从属连词变成介词

    在由after/before/since/until这几个具有介词性质的从句连词引导的时间状语从句中,如果从句主语和主句主语相同,则可以省略从句中的主语,同时将从句谓语变成ing形式。如果谓语动词是被动形式,则在前面加上being(be→being)

    1.1 Josh says that thanks to the line he has managed to avoid buying a car since moving back to the city from New York three years ago.乔希说,多亏了这条线路,自从三年前从纽约搬回该城市后,他都省去了买车的麻烦

    =...since he moved back to the city from New York three years ago.

    1.2 Published in 1941, it fell out of print until being reissued in the 1970s.这本书于1941年出版,之后一直处于绝版的状态,直到20世纪70年代被重新重新出版。【动词被动,需要在前面加上being

    1.3 Globally, bullying tends to peak in the early-teenage years before tapering off.世界范围来看,霸凌通常在青春期头几年达到顶峰,然后开始减少

    =Globally, bullying tends to peak in the early-teenage years before it tapers off.

    描述流程时间先后时,就可以使用到这种结构。如:

    The population increased steadily and then reached 20 million in 2019. →

    The population increased steadily before reaching 20 million in 2019. =

    The population increased steadily, reaching 20 million in 2019.【分词状语】


    二、省略主语+be

    同时满足下面两点时,可省略状语从句中的主语+be动词

    状从的主语和主句的主语相同

    从句的系动词是be或谓语部分包含be动词,即下面三种结构:

    主+be+表  ②主+be+v-ed  ③主+be+v-ing

    这种省略仅限于以下几类状从:when/while/if/unless/although/though/once/whether

    2.1 Many users complain of stress when confronted with the brutal realities of the digital dating market.在面对网络约会市场的残酷现实时,许多用户都抱怨压力大

    Many users complain of stress when they are confronted with the brutal realities of the digital dating market.【be confronted with面对】


    2.2 Though not small, the cost looks like a pittance compared with many ideas to alleviate intergenerational poverty.虽然成本不小,但与许多缓解代际贫困的想法相比,这一成本看起来微不足道

    Though it is not small, the cost also looks like a pittance compared with many ideas to alleviate intergenerational poverty.


    2.3 It is vital for people to move quickly into work once qualified对于人们来说,一旦具备资格,就有必要迅速进入工作岗位。【qualified在这里是形容词】

    =It is vital for people to move quickly into work once they are qualified.

    once qualified修饰动作move quickly into work(从句除了修饰句子,也可以修饰动作)。两者的逻辑主语均为前面提到的people。


    三、状从作插入语

    状语从句,尤其是这种省略的状从,除了放在主句前后,还可以放在句中作插入语,通常是主语后此时的句子主语往往是新信息,因此最好放在最前面。而该状语又比较重要,如果放在主句后表达效果又不太好,因此作插入语放在主语后。

    3.1 In China, rural migrant workers in cities are treated as second-class citizens. Their childrenwhen bullied, may attract less sympathy from teachers.在中国,进城务工的农民工被视为二等公民。他们的孩子在受到欺负时,可能会较少得到老师的同情。【=when they are bullied】

    their children属于新信息,放在前面更符合英文书面语的习惯。如果将when bullied放在整句话的前面,则读者的第一反应会是rural migrant workers受到了欺凌。

    3.2 Children of affluent families start off with a huge advantage. But institutional early education, if implemented properly, can help level the playing field for those from less privileged backgrounds.富裕家庭的孩子刚开始就有很大的优势。但是,机构的早期教育如果能合理实施的话,可以有助于为那些家庭条件较差的孩子创造公平的竞争环境。【=if it is implemented properly】

    institutional early education是上一句没有提到的信息,因此放在句首的位置。

    3.3 Innovation in stagnant sectors, while welcome, would shift the problem of cost disease elsewhere.停滞行业的创新虽然受欢迎,但会将成本病的问题转移到其他地方。【=while it is welcome】

    3.4 All these vehicles, if successful, promise a change in the way that goods are delivered.如果顺利的话,这些汽车可能会使货物运送的方式发生变化。【=if they are successful】

    上面这些作插入语的状语从句,如果不省略主语+be,就会显得非常重复。省略之后,才复合native的写作习惯。


    句子仿写

    1 Many users complain of stress when confronted with the brutal realities of the digital dating market.

    2 Institutional early education, if implemented properly, can help level the playing field for those from less privileged backgrounds.

    话题The consequences of being addicted to the internet.


    参考词汇:

    ①mental-health problems心理健康问题  

    ②falling eyesight下降的视力

    ③social isolation社交孤立

  • 5 How to use “ with ”  

    with结构的巧妙使用

    一、with表示“有”

    with在写作中可以表示“有”、“存在”,相比于使用have来说有时更加简洁地道。此时的with主要位于两个位置:后置定语状语

    A 后置定语

    with作后置定语的用法大家比较熟悉,这里不作赘述,举个简单的例子:

    students with access to the internet = students who have access to the internet

    这里再介绍一个with作非限制性定语(有逗号)的用法,此时是起补充说明的作用:

    1.1 Kosovo, with a median age of 29, has the region's youngest population.科索沃的人口平均年龄为29岁,有着该地区最年轻的人口。【a A of B引导具体数值,再比如a population of 1.3 billion

    =Kosovo, which has a median age of 29, has the region's youngest population.

    B 状语

    with+n还可以放在状语的位置,即主句前/主句后放在主句之后时,通常是对主句的补充或具体化。要用逗号, 与主句隔开。此时“有”这个动作的逻辑主语是句子主语

    1.2 Tokyo is now the world's largest city, with 37m residents in the metropolitan area.东京现在是世界上最大的城市,有3700万居民

    =Tokyo is now the world's largest city. It has 37m residents in the metropolitan area.

    相比之下,使用with可以使表述更加凝练地道。理论上也可以将这里的with...改为分词状语having...,但是会显得比较生硬,母语人士通常很少这样写:

    Tokyo is now the world's largest city, having 37m residents in the metropolitan area.(unnatural)

    1.3 It is also one of the world's most liveable cities, with punctual public transport, safe neighbourhoods and clean streets.东京也是世界上最适宜居住的城市之一,有着准时的公共交通、安全的街区和干净的街道

    放在主句前面时,通常是表示原因

    1.4 With low, unreliable incomes and few assets, poor people are unable to borrow formally.穷人由于收入低、不可靠、资产少,因此无法正式借款原因

    =Because poor people have low, unreliable incomes and few assets, they are unable to borrow formally.

    1.5 With a complex corporate hierarchy and systematic on-the-job training, large companies generally offer more opportunities for promotion and self-improvement.由于有着复杂的企业结构和系统的在职培训,大公司通常可以提供更多升职和自我提升的机会,而这两点对于年轻工作者来说都非常重要。原因

    =Because large companies have a complex corporate hierarchy and systematic on-the-job training, they...

    相比之下,使用with结构更加简洁,同时避免了主从句主语相同导致的重复。


    二、with复合结构作补充说明


    with复合结构常用的有:

    with+名词+分词结构/介词结构/形容词结构

    该结构和分词状语的区别在于:其逻辑主语与句子主语不同,在意思上相当于完整的一句话。一般位于主句之后,对主句作补充说明,用逗号与主句隔开这种补充说明可以是具体表现/举例,类似于第1节的分词状语。

    2.1 Educational attainment and income are closely correlated, with higher degrees typically leading to higher salaries.受教育程度与收入有密切的关系:高等学历通常会带来更高的收入。[加上typically,避免说法过于绝对]具体表现

    Educational attainment and income are closely correlated: higher degrees typically leading to higher salaries.

    2.2 They would like to work at home nearly 50% of the time, with the remainder in the office.他们想一半的时间在家工作,其余时间待在办公室。(the remainder在里表示其余时间)【补充说明

    这句话还可以改写为with+名词+分词形式:

    A) Respondents to surveys suggest that they would like to work from home nearly 50% of the time, with the remainder spent in the office.(spend+时间+补语)

    2.3 Most short-term or blended-learning programs exist in the professional world, with companies running ongoing programs to train their current workers.大多数短期或混合学习项目存在于职场中。各大公司正在开展项目来培训其当前的员工。【具体表现

    2.4 While the internet has made our lives easier, its interconnectedness has also made our data less secure, with a cyberattack now occurring every 40 seconds.尽管互联网使我们的生活更加方便,但是互联网的互联性也降低了数据的安全性(如今每40秒钟就有一起网络攻击事件发生)。【具体表现-举例

    =...its interconnectedness has also made our data less secure. For examplea cyberattack now occurrs every 40 seconds.

    如果某一细节信息需要一带而过,而无需具体展开论证时,则可以使用这种结构,避免再单独另起一句话,增强前后句逻辑性。


    句子仿写

    1 It is also one of the world's most liveable cities, with punctual public transport, safe neighbourhoods and clean streets.【表示"有"】

    2 Most short-term or blended-learning programs exist in the professional world, with companies running ongoing programs to train their current workers.【具体表现】

    话题The advantages of living in a large city


    参考词汇:

    ①educational resources教育资源  

    medical services医疗服务

  • 4 Appositive Phrase  

    同位语的巧妙使用

    一 对修饰对象进行解释说明

    这种同位语在提到(人/事物)名称/专业名词和举例时用的较多。由于身份背景信息是较为次要的信息,因此为了使句子更加凝练,通常处理为同位语的形式。

    比如写到科技对当代社会的改变时,以支付宝为例:

    Alipay is a digital-payment platform. It has transformed the way people pay.

    →Alipay, a digital-payment platform, has transformed the way people pay.电子支付平台支付宝极大地改变了人们支付的方式。

    在写作中,可以在同位语后面再加上一个后置定语(比如定语从句、分词结构),即身份概括词+定语从句/分词结构,引导与上下文关系不大的补充信息。比如对于上面一句话,可以在a digital-payment platform后面再加个定语进行补充:

    Alipay, a digital-payment platform used by the majority of people, has transformed the way people pay.

    1.1 That is the insight behind LearnUp, a startup that helps applicants without college degrees to get into entry-level positions.这正是LearnUp背后的想法。LearnUp是一家帮助没有大学学位的应聘者获得入门级职位的初创公司。

    1.2 Power plants and refineries are the nation's top emitters of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas (which is) thought to cause global warming.发电厂和炼油厂是这个国家最大的二氧化碳排放源,而二氧化碳被认为是导致全球变暖的一个温室气体。【be thought to do sth被认为做某事】

    形容词作同位语

    形容词可以作同位语,对前面名词的范围进行具体化。此时通常是两个形容词并列,将前面的名词成分按照某一标准分为两类。

    可以理解为形容词后面省略了重复的名词。

    2.1 More and more people, young and old, are growing fatter.越来越多的人,包括年轻人和老年人,变得越来越胖。【=young and old people】

    2.2 A child's development, both physical and mental, is stifled by a lack of iron.缺乏铁元素既会阻碍儿童的身体发育,也会阻碍其心理发育。【=physical and mental development of a child】

    2.3 The games will be held without fans, foreign or domestic, in a city under a state of emergency.奥运会将在一个处于紧急状态的城市举行,没有国内外的粉丝。

    当两个形容词是通过or连接时,也可以在前面加上whether,变成whether A or B结构。加上whether语气更强一些。

    2.3) The games will be held without fans, whether foreign or domestic, in a city under a state of emergency.【=whether they(fans) are foreign or domestic】

    二 对修饰对象进行概况/补充说明

    此时同位语修饰的对象可以是名词、动作或前面整句话。这类用法同样相当于非限定从的省略,即省略了which be。

    用法:先通过一个名词(一般是可数单数)对前面信息的性质进行概括,再通过后置定语进行信息补充:(a/an)+概括词+后置定语。整个同位语的重心往往是这个后置定语。通过这种方法也可以实现对句子的拓展。

    作用:与which非限定从一样,对主句的信息作补充,使得论述更加充分、合理。

    3.1 A growing number of countries want to [phase out coal entirely], a transition (which is) eased by cheap natural gas and the plunging cost of wind and solar power.越来越多的国家希望完全放弃使用煤炭,廉价的天然气和成本骤减的风能太阳能使得这一转变更容易。[phase out停止使用]【段落主旨:the fall of coal煤炭的消亡】

    a transition...概括前面的动作phase out coal entirely。如果将a trasition eased...改为which is eased...,那么which指代哪个成分就比较模糊。因此,这种同位语结构的使用可以使表述更加清晰。

    3.2 [Cultural boards face a constant tension between the need to get funding from the government and the artistic ambitions of their executives], a dilemma (which is) made even thornier by the need to repair outdated buildings.文化委员会面临着从政府获得资金的需求与高管们的艺术抱负之间的持续紧张关系,而修缮过时的建筑的需求使这种两难局面更加棘手。

    dilemma对前面整句话进行概括,接下来后置定语made...进行补充说明。

    3.3 High incomes are the consequence of [decades of compounding economic growth], a process in which urbanisation has played a fundamental role.高收入是数十年复合经济增长的结果(城市化在这一过程中起到了很重要的作用)。

    同位语对前面compounding economic growth的原因进行了解释,即经济快速增长的根本原因是城市化。但是这个原因并非重要信息,重要信息是主句中high incomes和economic growth之间的关系。


    仿写练习:

    1 Power plants and refineries are the nation's top emitters of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas thought to cause global warming.

    2 A growing number of countries want to phase out coal entirely, a transition eased by cheap natural gas and the plunging cost of wind and solar power.

    话题:How to reduce carbon emissions?


    参考词汇:

    ①greener energy sources

    ②public means of transport

    ③a carbon tax

  • 3 Attributive Clause  

    定语从句的简化与转化

    一 限制性定语从句的简化

    在书面语当中,很多定语从句都可以进行简化。在熟练掌握定语从句的基础上,就可以试着做一些简化,以达到简洁凝练的目的。先简要梳理一下简化规则:

    当who/that/which引导的定语从句的谓语是实义动词(非be动词)时,经常可以简化为分词结构。

    主要分为两种情况:

    ①n+who/that/which+be+v-ing/v-ed→n+v-ing/v-ed 进行/被动关系

    ②n+who/that/which+v→n+v-ing 主动关系

    如果定语从句中包含完成时或情态动词,则不进行这种简化。因为简化后会丢失完成和情态这层概念。

    1.1 The share of the American workforce employed in routine office jobs declined from 25.5% to 21% between 1996 and 2015.从事于常规办公室工作的美国劳动力从1996年的25.5%降到了2015年的21%。

    =The share of the American workforce that was employed in routine office jobs declined from 25.5% to 21% between 1996 and 2015.【被动关系】

    1.2 Students seeking financial aid must fill out a form disclosing both their family's income and finances.申请助学金的学生必须填写一份表明其家庭收入和财力的表格。

    =Students who seek financial aid must fill out a form which/that discloses both their family's income and finances..【主动关系】

    1.3 The pollution now affecting our lives is caused in part by human activities.目前正在影响我们生活的污染在某种程度上是由人类活动造成的。

    =The pollution that/which is now affecting our lives is caused in part by human activities.【进行】

    同理,当定语从句是which/that/who+be+形容词短语/介词短语时,通常也可以省略which/that/who+be:

    1.4 Such standardised tests may not assess all the important elements (which are) necessary for students to succeed in life.这类标化考试可能并不能够考核学生在生活中实现成功所需的所有重要因素。

    1.5 Results will help intervention researchers identify those (who are) at risk of social isolation.结果将会帮助干预研究者发现那些存在与社会隔离风险的老人。

    二 非限制性定从的简化

    非限制性定语从句也可以进行这种简化。大多数情况下,是对which be+v-ed/adj结构的简化。在写作中,推荐对主语后的非限定从进行这种尝试。起的作用和逻辑与非限定从完全相同。

    2.1 Delays in transmission, (which are) common when internet connections are spotty, make communication harder.传输延迟(网络连接不稳定时很常见)使得通讯更加困难。【逻辑:补充说明】

    2.2 Data, (which are) largely based on students' own reports, probably underestimate the scale of the problem.数据很大程度上来源于学生们自己的报道,因此可能低估了该问题(校园霸凌)的程度。【逻辑:原因】

    2.3 Materialism, (which is) so initially appealing, is not without problems of its own.物质主义尽管最初很具吸引力,但是其本身并非没有问题。【逻辑:让步转折】

    2.4 The cost of heating oil, (which is) used by around 3% of Britons, soared by 44% in March compared with the prior month.约3%的英国人使用取暖油,其价格在3月份比前一个月飙升了44%。【逻辑:补充说明】

    当表示让步转折这种逻辑时,也可以在非限定语前加上though(之后会讲到这种用法)

    Materialism, though so initially appealing, is not without problems of its own【加上though,逻辑关系更强烈】

    三、代词/n+of which/whom结构

    有时需要对名词的其中一部分进行补充说明,而非整体,就可以用到代词+of which/whom结构。较为常用的代词有none、some、many、most、all、both。其中,使用both of which(指代前面两个成分)和all of which(指代前面三个及以上成分)可以使指代更加明确。

    3.1 This would encourage [a reduction in consumption of carbon-intensive goods and services] as well as [investment in green technologies], both of which would eventually bring emissions and carbon concentrations down to safe levels.这将鼓励减少碳密集型商品和服务的消费以及对绿色技术的投资,这两者最终都会将排放量和碳浓度降低到安全水平。【逻辑:补充说明】

    这里的both of which如果改为which,在指代上就存在歧义:which既可以指代investment in green technologies,也可以指代a reduction...和investment两者,还可以指代前面整句话。

    3.2 Cow's milk abounds in protein, potassium, calcium and B vitamins, most of which are not naturally found in plant milks.牛的奶中富含蛋白质、钾、钙和B族维生素,其中大部分物质并不天然存在于植物牛奶中。【逻辑:对比】

    通过对比,进一步强化了Cow's milk的这一优点。

    转化为独立主格

    对于代词+of which/whom这一结构,当which/whom后面是主系表结构时,也可以省略be动词,同时将which/whom改为名词/代词,变成独立主格结构。这种情况通常是对前面的名词范围进行缩小。

    3.3 Thrifty pharmaceutical companies, many of them in India, can provide the drug for less than $1 a pop.节俭的制药公司—其中很多是在印度—可以以1美元一瓶的价格提供该药物。【=,many of which are in India】

    3.4 A convergence of factors, some of them accidental, explain Kenya's lead in mobile money.各种因素的结合,包括一些偶然的因素,解释了肯尼亚在移动货币方面的领先地位。【=, some of which are accidental】

    仿写练习

    1 Data, largely based on students' own reports, probably underestimate the scale of the problem.

    2 This would encourage [a reduction in consumption of carbon-intensive goods and services] as well as [investment in green technologies], both of which would eventually bring emissions and carbon concentrations down to safe levels.

    话题:The importance of globalization.


    参考观点:

    ①a nation's economic development一国的经济发展

    ②cultural exchange文化交流

    ③the distribution of resources资源分配



  • 2 Non-restrictive attributive clause  

    非限制性定语从句的使用

    一 补充细节信息

    非限制性定语从句是对主句中某一部分的补充说明,重要性要低于主句。可以通过非限定从来补充句子中的细节信息,使得信息更加饱满。非限定从的信息通常与段落主旨关联不大,但是可以使句子论述更充分。

    1.1 ①But technical problems persist.【论点】 ②For example, lithium-ion batteries are bad at storing energy for long periods, which is important in countries with rainy seasons.【举例】但是技术问题依然存在。例如,锂离子电池不适合长时间储存能量,但长时间储存能量在雨季国家很重要。【which可以指代动作】

    第②句的主句部分对应了中心句①中的problems,而which is important in countries with rainy seasons则与问题本身无关。是对句中storing energy for long periods这个动作的补充说明,突出了bad at storing...这一问题的严重性。

    1.2 ①Sluggish wage growth and a weak yen have made travel less affordable.【论点】 ②Even pensioners, who have plenty of free time and disposable income, are travelling less.【举例】缓慢的工资增长和疲软的日元使得旅行变得更加难以负担。退休人员有大把的空闲时间和可支配收入。然而即使是他们也减少旅行了。

    非限定从中的have plenty of free time and disposable income补充说明了pensioners的特征,从而更好地体现出even所要表达的语气,丰富了句子的细节。如果改为两个简单句,前后的逻辑性就会显得很差,因为这个从句中的信息与上句的travel less afforable之间并无直接关联:

    ①Sluggish wage growth and a weak yen have made travel less affordable. ②Pensioners have plenty of free time and disposable income. ③Even they are travelling less.

    二 常见逻辑关系

    A 可有可无的原因

    非限定从在写作中经常表示一些逻辑关系,最常用的是原因,一般是非常显而易见的原因。此时的从句通常是人或事物的固定属性。

    2.1 Artificial intelligence is a boon for humanity, but bad news for low-skilled workers, who are likely to be replaced by machines. 人工智能对于人类来说是个福利,但是对于低技能工作者来说却是坏事,因为他们可能会被机器替代。

    句子的重心是AI的优缺点,至于为什么AI对low-skilled workers来说是坏事,原因非常显而易见,因此处理为非限定从。(如果要突出这个原因,则改为because they are likely...)

    2.2 The physical effects of global warming will be greater in poorer countries, which have less capacity to adapt and tend to be closer to the equator, where the weather is harsh.全球变暖对贫穷国家的物理影响会更大,因为这些国家的适应能力更低,而且往往更靠近赤道(赤道的天气很恶劣)。

    2.3 The period from birth to age five, when the brain is at its most plastic(period), is the most important (period) in a child's development.从出生到五岁这段时间,即大脑处于可塑性最强的时期,是儿童发育中最重要的时期。【最高级后面的名词在前面出现过时,可以省略】

    B 对同一事物的对比/转折

    表示转折/对比关系时,同样是起补充的作用。目的是衬托主句中的重要信息。

    2.3 ①Concerns about technology have arisen before. ②The 1920s witnessed a backlash against cars, which had earlier been seen as a miraculous answer to the affliction of horse-drawn vehicles.对于科技的担忧之前就出现过。比如,20世纪20年代就出现了一次对于汽车的强烈抵制,而汽车在之前却被人们视为解决马车烦恼的绝佳方法。

    第②句中的重点是主句The 1920s witnessed a backlash against cars,是对于上一句的举例。而which从句中的对比/转折信息则是对主句起到衬托的作用,与上下句没有关联。

    2.4 Knowledge, which used to be available only to the elite through books such as the Encyclopedia Britannica, is abundant and free today.过去只有社会精英才能通过《大英百科全书》等书籍获得知识,如今,这些知识丰富且免费。

    2.5 Telecommunications, which in theory should bind us together, has often divided us in practice.电子通信理论上应该把我们联系在一起,但实际上却常常把我们分开。【表示转折关系时,谓语中可以加入actually/indeed/in practice等词表示强调】

    三 "等位修饰"

    对于句子中处于对比或并列的两个名词成分,可以各加一个非限定从进行补充说明。使得论证更加充分,同时彰显“对称美”。被修饰的两个信息通常都是新信息,即上文没有提到的信息,而主语通常是上文讨论的话题。

    3.1 This policy will make little difference to rich students, who can opt for private tutors as a substitute, but will plague poorer ones, who often lack access to quality educational resources.该政策对富裕学生来说影响不大,因为富裕学生可以选择家庭辅导作为替代品,但会对贫困学生造成困扰,因为他们通常缺乏高质量的教育资源。【quality:高质量的】

    3.2 ①The pandemic has made remote working normal. ②That would be good news for mothers, who tend to pick jobs that fit their schedule. ③But it will mainly benefit university graduates, whose jobs are easier to do at home.此次疫情使远程工作正常化了。这对于母亲们来说是好事,因为他们通常会选择适合她们日程安排的工作。不过主要的受益对象还是大学毕业生,因为他们的工作更容易在家里完成。

    这一段讲的是远程工作常态化所影响的主要人群。②③两句是受益的两个人群,主句部分表示了受益这一重要信息(good news for/mainly benefit),非限定从(who.../whose...)补充说明原因(两个人群的固定属性)。但是该原因并非作者要表达的重点,因此放在从句中,使句子更紧凑。

    仿写练习

    1 This policy will make little difference to rich students, who can opt for private tutors as a substitute, but will plague poorer ones, who often lack access to quality educational resources.【表原因:人/事物的固定属性】

    2 Telecommunications, which in theory should bind us together, has often divided us in practice.【表对比/转折】

    话题:The drawbacks of remote working


    参考观点:

    ①employees may slack off员工可能会偷懒

    ②lack communication with colleagues缺乏与同事的沟通

    ③find it difficult to juggle life with work发现更难平衡生活和工作



  • 1 Adverbial Participle Clause  

    补充说明之分词状语

    一 具体化

    分词作状语可以对前面主句的谓语(主语之后的部分)进行信息具体化。整句话的逻辑:由抽象(谓语部分)→具体(分词状语)。

    作状语的动作与句子主语构成主动语态,用v-ing;与句子主语构成被动语态,用v-ed。

    1.1 Buildings and road transport are the biggest contributors to greenhouse emissions, accounting for 30% each.建筑和道路交通贡献了最多的温室排放气体,各占30%。[contributor to sth某事的促成因素]

    are the biggest contributors to greenhouse emissions是抽象的规律,accounting for 30% each则是具体数据。

    =Buildings and road transport are the biggest contributors to greenhouse emissions. They account for 30% each.【相比之下,原句1.1更简洁:将较为次要的信息处理为状语的形式,而不单独占一句话】

    在写作中,可以将规律放在主句中,将这种规律的具体表现处理为分词作状语的形式(如果逻辑主语一致)。再比如:

    Going on holiday is the main motive for travelling abroad, accounting for 55% of trips. 度假是出国旅行的主要目的,占旅行数量的55%。

    1.2 But a few, like Mr Henry, are more sceptical, worrying that pre-docs could represent another stage in the credentials arms race.但是有少数人(比如亨利)持质疑态度,他们担心博士预科课程可能意味着学历证书竞争的另一个阶段。[a few=a few people]

    在这句话中,worrying that...是分词作状语,其中动词worrying后面又引导一个宾语从句that....。该结构对主句的谓语部分are more sceptical进行具体的解释说明。即主句摆态度,接下来分词状语给出具体的观点。

    1.3 Officials reacted swiftly, passing anti-bullying legislation at both national and local levels.官方迅速回应,在国家和地方层面都通过了反霸凌立法。【抽象行动→具体行动】

    1.4 Large-scale natural climate effects also play a role, warming and cooling the planet in a cyclical way.大规模的自然气候效应也起着一定作用,这些效应以周期性的方式使地球变暖和降温。【作用→具体的作用】

    1.5 This old notion is deep-rooted, held by two-thirds of people and even by 62% of medical practitioners.这种传统观念根深蒂固:三分之二的人、甚至是62%的医学从业者都抱有这种观念。【现象→具体数据】

    1.6 China's urbanization is a marvel. The population of its cities has quintupled over the past 40 years, reaching 813m.中国的城市化是个奇迹。其城市人口在过去四十年翻了五倍,达到了8.13亿。【变化规律→达到的具体数值】

    这个句式可以用来引导数据的变化+终点数值。

    二、对“谓语部分”进行举例

    分词状语也可用于对谓语(主语后的部分)进行举例,属于上面具体化的一种。使用该结构时,主句的信息通常已经很细化了,不需要单独再写一句话来举例。例子1-2个具有代表性的即可。

    2.1 These women move back and forth between their personal and professional lives in the course of a day, conducting a meeting before taking their children for a check­up and then returning to the office.这些女性在一天中在工作和生活中来回切换。比如,她们可以开完会就去带孩子做检查,然后再回到办公室。

    2.2 Robots are now indispensable, picking items off shelves and helping people pack boxes.机器人现在必不可少,比如它们可以从货架上挑选物品,以及帮助人们打包箱子。

    2.3 Taking part in the programme did help the children in other ways, fostering social and emotional skills that turned out to be important in later life.参与该课程确实在其他方面对这些儿童有所帮助,比如培养了事实证明在今后人生中很重要的社交和情感能力。

    句子仿写

    仿照下面两句的结构,并围绕下面给定的话题,仿写两句话。也可以任选两个例句进行仿写。

    1 Large-scale natural climate effects also play a role, warming and cooling the planet in a cyclical way.【具体解释】

    2 Robots are now indispensable, picking items off shelves and helping people pack boxes.【举例】

    话题:The advantages of driverless vehicles

    参考观点:

    ①reduce greenhouse gas emissions降低温室气体排放

    ②alleviate traffic congestion减轻道路拥堵

    ③improve road safety提高道路安全



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